IAP-26-041
Beyond planting trees: biodiversity and multifunctionality following woodland creation
Woodland creation is increasingly promoted as a means of tackling the biodiversity and climate crises, with ambitious restoration targets driving the expansion of tree cover globally and across the UK. However, establishing trees does not necessarily recreate a functioning woodland ecosystem. There is growing recognition that ecological restoration should aim to recover complex, self-sustaining ecosystems that support multiple functions and are resilient to environmental change [1].
Much of the existing research on woodland creation has focused on biodiversity recovery and the development of woodland structure. Studies have shown that biodiversity recovery following woodland creation can take decades and is influenced by local site characteristics, land-use history and landscape context [2–4]. In particular, woodland structural complexity is an important predictor of biodiversity recovery [2,3], and is itself influenced by woodland establishment methods [5]. However, less is understood about how ecosystem functioning develops alongside biodiversity and woodland structure following woodland creation.
Ecosystems perform multiple functions simultaneously, including primary productivity, decomposition, nutrient cycling, pollination, herbivory and predation. These functions may develop at different rates and exhibit synergies or trade-offs. Understanding their individual responses, as well as how they develop together, is therefore important for assessing ecosystem recovery and multifunctionality. Ecological functions also underpin ecosystem services that benefit people, although high levels of ecological multifunctionality do not necessarily translate into the delivery of ecosystem services valued by stakeholders [6].
Biodiversity plays an important role in supporting ecosystem functioning and multifunctionality [7], and a recent global synthesis demonstrated generally positive relationships, although these varied across ecological contexts and functions [8]. Meta-analyses of recovering ecosystems, including restored forests in China, have also shown that biodiversity and ecosystem functions can follow different recovery trajectories, with responses varying among taxonomic groups and functions [9, 10]. An important challenge therefore remains in understanding how ecosystem functioning and multifunctionality develop in recovering ecosystems, such as created woodlands, and the role of different components of biodiversity in this process.
The overall aim of this studentship is to understand how biodiversity across multiple taxonomic groups supports ecosystem functioning and multifunctionality following woodland creation, and how these relationships vary with woodland age, land-use history and local and landscape context. Using an established network of created woodlands and a natural experiment approach, the project will investigate how above- and below-ground ecosystem functions develop as woodlands mature and how different components of biodiversity contribute to their recovery. It will also explore how ecological multifunctionality relates to the ecosystem services valued by people. Potential questions using existing and new data may include:
1. Are there trade-offs between above-ground carbon storage and biodiversity recovery following woodland creation, and how are these influenced by woodland age and structural complexity?
2. How do below-ground ecosystem functions, such as decomposition and nutrient cycling, recover following woodland creation, and how does this vary with woodland age and land-use history? What role do soil microbial communities play in supporting below-ground ecosystem functioning?
3. What role does biodiversity play in the recovery of above-ground ecosystem functioning (e.g. pollination, herbivory and predation) following woodland creation? How do these relationships vary with woodland age, land-use history, local site characteristics and landscape context?
4. How does biodiversity influence ecosystem multifunctionality following woodland creation? Does this relationship vary with woodland age, land-use history, local site characteristics and landscape context? To what extent does ecological multifunctionality in created woodlands align with the ecosystem services valued by people?
Methodology
Fieldwork will be conducted in woodland creation sites from two complementary research projects: the Woodland Creation and Ecological Networks (WrEN) project and the Restoring Resilient Ecosystems (RestREco) project. WrEN is a large-scale natural experiment investigating biodiversity recovery following woodland creation, encompassing woodlands of different ages, sizes and levels of landscape connectivity across Scotland and England. RestREco builds on this network, with detailed ecological surveys conducted across 60 created woodlands (30 in Scotland and 30 in England), selected to represent gradients of woodland age and contrasting former agricultural and industrial land uses. The student will benefit from extensive existing datasets on biodiversity (including plants, invertebrates, birds, bats and soil microbial communities), woodland structure, soil properties and ecosystem functioning. Together, these existing datasets provide a strong foundation for new fieldwork to investigate how biodiversity–multifunctionality relationships vary with woodland age, land-use history, local site characteristics and landscape context.
Existing datasets will be complemented by targeted field surveys and field-based measurements of above- and below-ground ecosystem functions, potentially including decomposition, nutrient cycling, pollination, herbivory and predation. Woodland structural measurements and remote sensing approaches, including LiDAR, will also be used to investigate relationships between structural complexity, above-ground biomass and carbon stocks, alongside measurements of soil carbon.
Statistical analyses will investigate relationships between different components of biodiversity (including taxonomic and functional diversity), individual ecosystem functions and overall ecosystem multifunctionality. These analyses will examine how biodiversity–function and biodiversity–multifunctionality relationships vary with woodland age, land-use history, local site characteristics and landscape context, helping to identify the factors that support the development of multifunctional woodlands.
There is also scope to incorporate a social dimension, using questionnaires, workshops or other participatory approaches to explore which ecosystem services people value from created woodlands and how these relate to ecological multifunctionality.
Project Timeline
Year 1
Literature review; training in experimental design and field surveying techniques; initial analysis of existing datasets; first field season (Summer 2028) to collect data on ecosystem functions in suitable WrEN/RestREco woodland sites
Year 2
Data processing; training in statistical techniques; initial data analysis of new datasets; second field season (Summer 2029) to collect further data on ecosystem functions in suitable WrEN/RestREco woodland sites
Year 3
Final fieldwork to collect additional data (Summer 2030); further data processing and analysis; beginning paper writing
Year 3.5
Final data analysis; paper and thesis write-up
Training
& Skills
A comprehensive training programme will be provided, combining specialist scientific training with transferable and professional skills, including:
1. Fieldwork and experimental design. Training in ecological field survey techniques (e.g. woodland structure, biodiversity and ecosystem functioning surveys), field-based measurements of ecological processes, and sampling and experimental design.
2. Data analysis, ecological modelling and remote sensing. Training in statistical analysis and modelling, including approaches to investigating biodiversity–ecosystem multifunctionality relationships, alongside remote sensing techniques such as LiDAR. These skills will be developed through targeted training courses within the IAPETUS consortium (e.g. Programming and Analysis of Environmental Data in R) and external providers (e.g. advanced statistical techniques).
3. Land-use policy, management and social science methods. Working with CASE partner Forest Research, the student will gain experience in policy-relevant research and translating scientific findings into practical guidance for woodland management. Training in social science methods, including participatory approaches to understanding stakeholder perspectives on ecosystem services, will be supported by expertise within the School of Social & Environmental Sustainability (SSES) at the University of Glasgow.
4. Transferable and professional skills. Training in core research skills, including data management, scientific writing, presentations and research communication.
The PhD will be based at the University of Glasgow, with visits to the University of Stirling and Forest Research (Edinburgh) to meet with co-supervisors and other researchers, participate in seminars and undertake specialist training.
References & further reading
[1] Bullock, J.M. et al. (2022). Ecography, 2022(4). DOI:10.1111/ecog.05780. [2] Fuentes‐Montemayor, E., et al. (2020). Ecological Applications, 30(2) DOI:10.1002/eap.2028. [3] Waddell, E.H. et al. (2024). Ecological Solutions and Evidence, 5(2) DOI:10.1002/2688-8319.12339. [4] Waddell, E.H. et al. (2026). Journal of Applied Ecology, 63(4) DOI:10.1111/1365-2664.70387. [5] Hughes et al. (2026). Forest Ecology and Management, 605 DOI: 10.1016/j.foreco.2025.123490. [6] Manning, P. et al. (2018). Nature Ecology & Evolution, 2(3). DOI: 10.1038/s41559-017-0461-7. [7] Hector, A. and Bagchi, R. (2007). Nature, 448(7150). DOI:10.1038/nature05947. [8] Moffett, E.R. et al. (2026). Nature Ecology & Evolution, 1-12 DOI:10.1038/s41559-026-03200-4. [9] Carrick, P.J. & Forsythe, K.J. (2020). PLOS ONE, 15(7) DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0236550. [10] Ren, Y., et al. (2017). Land Degradation & Development, 28. DOI:10.1002/ldr.2728
